Significant species differences appear to exist, however; studies by Westlund and Coulter in the monkey demonstrated that, in addition to projections to the sacral spinal cord, LC innervates the DVC and nucleus ambiguus suggesting an involvement in descending modulation of vagal parasympathetic regulation (534). While the mechanism is not completely understood, PAG stimulation appears to result in inhibition of dorsal horn nociceptive neurons (97, 374). Chemical stimulation of visceral afferents activates medullary neurones projecting to the central amygdala and periaqueductal grey. Insights into mechanisms of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor signal transduction. Descending projections of the locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus/medial parabrachial nuclei in monkey: Axonal transport studies and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase immunocytochemistry. Terreberry RR, Neafsey EJ. Descending projections of infralimbic cortex that mediate stimulation-evoked changes in arterial pressure. Berthoud HR, Jedrzejewska A, Powley TL. Hyland NP, Abrahams TP, Fuchs K, Burmeister MA, Hornby PJ. In vitro and in vivo analysis of the effects of corticotropin releasing factor on rat dorsal vagal complex. As a result of the gastrocolic reflex, the colon has increased motility in response to the stretch of the stomach with the ingestion of food. Differential c-fos expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract and spinal cord following noxious gastric distention in the rat. Opiate-induced molecular and cellular plasticity of ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus catecholamine neurons. Parsons BJ, Poat JA, Roberts PA. Studies of the mechanism of noradrenaline stimulation of fluid absorption by rat jejunum in vitro. Tran L, Wiskur B, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B. Gaisano GG, Park SJ, Daly DM, Beyak MJ. Nutrition and motility disorders. Balaban CD. Baraboi ED, Michel C, Smith P, Thibaudeau K, Ferguson AV, Richard D. Effects of albumin-conjugated PYY on food intake: The respective roles of the circumventricular organs and vagus nerve. The integration of cardiovascular with GI reflexes within the reticular formation may provide a neuroanatomical basis for clinical findings that stimulation of gastric mechanoreceptors modulates hemodynamic reflexes, including, for example, decreased coronary blood flow and cardiac contractility following gastric distention (503). -can also act on brain to trigger hunger or satiety Expression of monosaccharide transporters in intestine of diabetic humans. Although some BNST inputs to the PVN are CRF-immunoreactive, anatomical studies indicate that the majority of the BNST inputs to the PVN are GABAergic (379), suggesting (i) that the BNST exerts a predominantly inhibitory influence over the HPA axis activity and (ii) that activation of the HPA axis may arise either from activation of CRF-containing BNST inputs or disinhibition of GABA-containing BNST inputs. Glucokinase is the likely mediator of glucosensing in both glucose-excited and glucose-inhibited central neurons. Karimnamazi H, Travers SP, Travers JB. Once absorbed from the intestine, however, glucose enters the bloodstream where it continues to modulate GI functions via actions on vagal neurocircuits. Catecholaminergic neurons in rat dorsal motor nucleus of vagus project selectively to gastric corpus. Babygirija R, Zheng J, Ludwig K, Takahashi T. Central oxytocin is involved in restoring impaired gastric motility following chronic repeated stress in mice. DMV neurons with axons projecting via the celiac and accessory celiac vagal branches, for example, are located within the lateral tips of the DMV whereas the cell bodies of axons projecting via the gastric branches are located within the medial left (anterior gastric branch) or right (posterior gastric branch) DMV. Travagli RA, Hermann GE, Browning KN, Rogers RC. Mayer EA, Berman S, Suyenobu B, Labus J, Mandelkern MA, Naliboff BD, Chang L. Differences in brain responses to visceral pain between patients with irritable bowel syndrome and ulcerative colitis. Handa RJ, Weiser MJ. Stenvers DJ, Jonkers CF, Fliers E, Bisschop PH, Kalsbeek A. The relatively sparse direct innervation of the spinal cord by PAG neurons (315) led to the suggestion that the analgesia resulting from PAG stimulation occurred indirectly via the medulla, particularly the nucleus raphe magnus (5, 396) although this medullary relay nuclei may not be solely responsible for the descending antinociceptive pathway activated from the PAG (179, 423). Commissiong JW, Hellstrom SO, Neff NH. Vagal and splanchnic sensory pathways mediate inhibition of gastric motility induced by duodenal distension. Henke PG. National Library of Medicine Lorber M. Results of simulated mastication suggest existence of a periodontogastric motility reflex. Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa Choose the answer that lists the four layers of the wall of the alimentary canal in the appropriate order from innermost to outermost. Wan S, Browning KN, Travagli RA. DMV neurons involved in the inhibitory NANC pathway, for example, appear to be located more caudally within the brainstem, in contrast to DMV neurons within the excitatory cholinergic pathway which appear to be located in the medial and rostral areas of the nucleus (116, 275, 411, 412). As a major efferent nucleus involved in the generation of fear and anxiety behaviors as well as the acquisition of emotional memories, the CeA plays a prominent role in linking stress and anxiety with the development of GI, particularly colonic, hypersensitivity (345). Travagli RA, Gillis RA, Vicini S. Effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone on neurons in rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. The role of central glucagon-like peptide-1 in mediating the effects of visceral illness: Differential effects in rats and mice. The central CeA, rather than being a single anatomical or functional structure, is a relatively large, heterogeneous complex located within the anteromedial temporal lobe and is involved in learning and memory as well as the integration of aversive and emotional stimuli with learning and memory as well as autonomic, including GI, functions [reviewed in (217, 456)]. Reduced hindbrain and enteric neuronal response to intestinal oleate in rats maintained on high-fat diet. Regulation of gastrointestinal motilityinsights from smooth muscle biology. An additional layer of neurons, termed subependymal cerebrospinal containing neurons (CSF-cNs) are positioned, strategically, between the CSF and neuronal parenchyma and potentially integrate CSF signaling with autonomic homeostatic signaling (361). This would suggest that the intrinsic membrane properties of DMV neurons innervating the GI tract are not static but, rather, are open to expression changes in response to damage or insult. Recent evidence from several laboratories, including our own, has shown that a significant degree of plasticity with vagal neurocircuits occurs in response to physiological or pathophysiological conditions. Huang XF, Tork I, Paxinos G. Dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve: A cyto- and chemoarchitectonic study in the human. Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and amygdala. Hernandez DE, Emerick SG. The CeA receives inputs from structures at all supraspinal levels including the brainstem [NTS and ventrolateral medulla; (353,362,403)] the midbrain [PB complex, hypothalamus, and PAG; (47, 362, 425, 436)] and forebrain [insular cortex and thalamus; (285,424,542); (Fig. Van Dijk G, Thiele TE, Donahey JC, Campfield LA, Smith FJ, Burn P, Bernstein IL, Woods SC, Seeley RJ. Selective opioid agonists modulate afferent transmission in the rat nucleus tractus solitarius. The activity of sympathetic motor and secretomotor neurons is modulated by inputs from submucosal and myenteric neurons, local viscerofugal neurons as well as inputs from spinal sensory afferent neurons [reviewed in (515, 516)]; the influence of the sympathetic nervous system over GI functions is modulated, therefore, in an ongoing manner, by local activity within the intestine. Morphology of identified preganglionic neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. The nervous control of the caudal region of the large bowel in the cat. The contents of the gastrointestinal tract and the gastrointestinal tract generate mechanical and chemical signals, which are essential for regulating digestive function and feeding behavior. The Central Organization of the vagus nerve innervating the colon of the rat. Altschuler SM, Ferenci DA, Lynn RB, Miselis RR. Norepinephrine effects on identified neurons of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Fennegan FM, Puiggari MJ. The gut hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 produced in brain: Is this physiologically relevant? Role of the cerebellum in the control of gastro-intestinal motility. This suggests that, in addition to inducing the release of 5-HT from enterochromaffin cells (170, 391), glucose may also increase the ability of vagal sensory neurons to respond to the released 5-HT, amplifying and prolonging the sensory signal. Raymer CK, Park HS, Wishart JM, Kong M-F, Doran SM, Horowitz M. Effects of intraduodenal glucose and fructose on antropyloric motility and appetite in healthy humans. The vascular bed of the entire GI tract is densely innervated by sympathetic fibers and regulation of GI vascular tone is an important modulator of blood pressure (195). Ileal brake: A sensible food target for appetite control. To understand such a complex hierarchical control system almost certainly requires the wholehearted implementation of integrated approaches that consider the regulation of GI functions in toto, rather than as discrete anatomical, physiological, or neurological processes. Locus coeruleus neurons and sympathetic nerves: Activation by visceral afferents. The afferent fibres of the abdominal vagus in the rabbit and cat. King BF, Townsend-Nicholson A. Subnuclear organization of the efferent connections of the parabrachial nucleus in the rat. Li M, Han F, Shi Y. While this reflex was initially thought of as being operative in the diseased gut (i.e., activated only during malabsorbtion (449), later studies have shown that nutrients may reach the distal small intestine even under normal conditions, and re-establish the motility from the fed to the fasted pattern (264, 297). Biochemical mapping of noradrenergic nerves arising from the rat locus coeruleus. Ultrastructural analysis of enkephalinergic terminals in parasympathetic ganglia innervating the urinary bladder of the cat. Indeed, stimulation of the CeA increases anxiety-like behaviors and augments stress-induced responses via actions, at least in part, that activate the HPA axis. Physiology and immunology of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway. Immunohistochemical studies showed a high density of TRH-immunoreactive fibers within the DVC (236, 310) that were eliminated following transection of the pathway from the medullary raphe nuclei to the DVC (364). Accessibility Nonaka N, Shioda S, Niehoff ML, Banks WA. Central noradrenergic pathways for the integration of hypothalamic neuroendocrine and autonomic responses. In fact, systemic administration of the muscarinic antagonist, atropine, reduces gastric tone and motility dramatically, whereas systemic administration of a NO synthase inhibitor has lesser effect to increase gastric tone and motility. Before Long ascending projections to the midbrain from cells of lamina I and nucleus of the dorsolateral funiculus of the rat spinal cord. Paulino G, Barbier dlS, Knotts TA, Oort PJ, Newman JW, Adams SH, Raybould HE. Glucose increases synaptic transmission from vagal afferent central nerve terminals via modulation of 5HT3 receptors. However, a . Reflex gastric relaxation in response to distention of the duodenum. Browning KN, Fortna SR, Hajnal A. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass reverses the effects of diet-induced obesity to inhibit the responsiveness of central vagal motoneurones. Corticotropin-releasing factor. Raybould HE, Roberts ME, Dockray GJ. Some of the prominent communiques enabled by nervous interconnections within the digestive tract have been named as reflexes and serve to illustrate a robust system of control. Attenuation of shock-induced ulcers after lesions in the medial amygdala. Lyubashina OA. Direct hypothalamo-autonomic connections. XXXV. The reversibility of these hyperglycemia- and diabetes-induced effects on vagal neurocircuits is of particular importance for future investigationsis there a period of exposure to elevated glucose levels beyond which the damage to vagal neurocircuits is irreversible, or is the system sufficiently plastic to recover following subsequent tight glycemic control?
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